Historical Theories in SPED
Friday, July 18, 2008

Special Education Theories & Principles

“Historical Theories”

Overview

— Claiming lineage to such persons as Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard (1775 - 1838), the physician who "tamed" the "wild boy of Aveyron," and Anne Sullivan Macy (1866 - 1936), the teacher who "worked miracles" with Helen Keller, special educators teach those students who have physical, cognitive, language, learning, sensory, and/or emotional abilities that deviate from those of the general population. Special educators provide instruction specifically tailored to meet individualized needs, making education available to students who otherwise would have limited access to education. In 2001, special education in the United States was serving over five million students.

Development of the Field of Special Education

— At its inception in the early nineteenth century, leaders of social change set out to cure many ills of society.

— A rich literature describes the treatment provided to individuals with disabilities in the 1800s: They were often confined in jails and almshouses without decent food, clothing, personal hygiene, and exercise.

— During much of the nineteenth century, and early in the twentieth, professionals believed individuals with disabilities were best treated in residential facilities in rural environments.

— By the end of the nineteenth century, pessimism about cure and emphasis on physiological causes led to a change in orientation that would later bring about the "warehouse-like" institutions that have become a symbol for abuse and neglect of society's most vulnerable citizens.

— At the close of the nineteenth century, state governments established juvenile courts and social welfare programs, including foster homes, for children and adolescents.

— In 1951 the first institution for research on exceptional children opened at the University of Illinois and began what was to become the newest focus of the field of special education: the slow learner and, eventually, what we know today as learning disability.

— In 1817 the first special education school in the United States, the American Asylum for the Education and Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb (now called the American School for the Deaf), was established in Hartford, Connecticut, by Gallaudet.

— By the middle of the nineteenth century, special educational programs were being provided in many asylums.

— By the close of the nineteenth century, special classes within regular public schools had been launched in major cities.

— In 1840 Rhode Island passed a law mandating compulsory education for children, but not all states had compulsory education until 1918.

— The number of special classes and complementary support services (assistance given to teachers in managing behavior and learning problems) increased dramatically after World War II.

— by 1970 the field of special education was offering a variety of educational placements to students with varying disabilities and needs; however, public schools were not yet required to educate all students regardless of their disabilities.

— Although many contend that special education was born with the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) in 1975, it is clear that special educators were beginning to respond to the needs of children with disabilities in public schools nearly a century earlier.

History of Legislation

— 1870s, when the American Association of Instructors of the Blind and the American Association on Mental Deficiency (the latter is now the American Association on Mental Retardation) were formed

— In 1922 the Council for Exceptional Children, now the major professional organization of special educators, was organized.

— In the 1930s and 1940s parent groups began to band together on a national level.

— By mid-century all states had legislation providing for education of students with disabilities. However, legislation was still noncompulsory.

— In the late 1950s federal money was allocated for educating children with disabilities and for the training of special educators.

— This suit, resolved by consent agreement, specified that all children age six through twenty-one were to be provided free public education in the least restrictive alternative (LRA, which would later become the least restrictive environment [LRE] clause in EAHCA).

— In 1975 the legal action begun under the Kennedy and Johnson administrations resulted in EAHCA, which was signed into law by President Gerald Ford.

— EAHCA reached full implementation in 1977 and required school districts to provide free and appropriate education to all of their students with disabilities.

— EAHCA reached full implementation in 1977 and required school districts to provide free and appropriate education to all of their students with disabilities.

— 1990 EAHCA was amended to include a change to person-first language, replacing the term handicapped student with student with disabilities.

— In 1990 EAHCA was amended to include a change to person-first language, replacing the term handicapped student with student with disabilities. The 1990 amendments also added new classification categories for students with autism and traumatic brain injury and transition plans within IEPs for students age fourteen or older. In 1997, IDEA was reauthorized under President Clinton and amended to require the inclusion of students with disabilities in statewide and districtwide assessments, measurable IEP goals and objectives, and functional behavioral assessment and behavior intervention plans for students with emotional or behavioral needs. Because IDEA is amended and reauthorized every few years, it is impossible to predict the future of this law. It is possible that it will be repealed or altered dramatically by a future Congress. The special education story, both past and future, can be written in many different ways.

SpED in the Philippines

— 1902 – deaf and blind were found in a census of school-aged children.

— 1907- Insular School for the Deaf and Blind in Manila

— 1926-1949 – Philippine Association for the Deaf (PAD), National Orthopedic Hospital School for the Crippled Children (NOHSCC), Quezon City Science High School for gifted students, Philippine Foundation for the Rehabilitation of the Disabled (PFRD)

— 1950-1975 – First week of August was Declared as Sight Saving Week, First Parent Teacher Work Conference in Special Education, beginning of integration of deaf pupils in regular classes, creation of Special Education Section of the Special Subjects and Services Division, DEC issued Circular no. 11 s. 1962-Qualifications of SpED Teachers

— First Institute on the Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, First National Conference on the Rehabilitation of the Disabled,

— 1976-2000-Proclamation of Decade of the Filipino Child, creation of National Commission Concerning Disabled Persons (NCCDP), Cebu State College Special High School for the Deaf, Batas Pambansa Bilang 344-Accessibility Law, DECS Order No. 14 – Regional SpED Centers (RSEC), 3^rd Week of January-Autism Consciousness Week

SpED in Canada

— Alberta, Canada - The regulations covering general education are deemed to apply to children and young people with special educational needs. No children are excluded from the public education system because of the severity of their disabilities.

— Pre-school, primary and secondary education for special educational needs are covered by legislation. The main legislation is the 1988 School Act. This sets out entitlement to special education programs, assessment procedures, resourcing, powers and responsibilities of school authorities, and parental rights.

— Seven categories of special educational needs are defined: emotional and behavioral disturbance; mental retardation/severe learning difficulties; physical/motor disabilities; visual impairment; hearing impairment; language disorders; and learning disabilities.

— Special education is the sole responsibility of the Ministry of Education.

— New Brunswick, Canada - The regulations covering general education are deemed to apply to children and young people with special educational needs. No children are excluded from the public education system because of the severity of their disabilities.

— Pre-primary, primary and secondary education for special educational needs are covered by legislation. The main legislation, initially referred to as Bill 85, is contained in the 1987 Schools Act. This Act introduced three significant changes: it made school authorities responsible for providing education to all students and guaranteed the right for those with special educational needs to access all educational programs and services; it placed an emphasis on individual programming so that school districts have to provide services to students 'based on their individual needs rather than on any category of exceptionality'; and it established placement in a regular classroom as the option of first choice for all pupils.

— Categories of special educational needs are not defined.

— Special education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education but some responsibilities are shared with the Ministry of Health.

SpED in other countries

— Egypt referred to eliminating the effects of handicap, developing students‘ self-confidence, equipping them with daily living skills and providing the experience necessary for them to adapt to society, as well as integrating them in mainstream schooling and then society; Thailand referred to promoting self-reliance, developing the ability to work with other people, urging an awareness of responsible citizenship and facilitating a normal life in society.

— Many of these statements had a presumption in favor of integration, whether in terms of seeking to develop individuals within the least restrictive environment (Spain) or working towards maximum participation in adult life.

— It may be worth noting that the United Arab Emirates was the only country to make explicit reference to providing appropriate education for pupils with behavioral difficulties, though other countries did of course encompass these in their general formulations.

— Bahrain referred to three sets of principles - democratic, economic and human. Saudi Arabia emphasized the need to take account of Islamic teaching and societal values. Canada Alberta based policy on a philosophy of equality, sharing, participation, and the worth and dignity of individuals. Denmark, Norway and Spain drew attention to the underlying principles of normalization of services, integration, participation and decentralization.

— Australia Queensland spelled out what was required at school level - flexible programs, academic organization and structural arrangements, all provided within a framework of inclusive curriculum practices. Romania also emphasized curricular flexibility, adding in the need to provide appropriate legislative and administrative underpinning and to run pilot projects.

— Chile's policy aims included preventing disability, facilitating disabled persons' access to rehabilitation programs, supporting innovation in education and encouraging research.

— China and Jamaica shared a policy objective of reforming teacher training in special education and encouraging teachers to follow careers in special education. Both countries also had quantitative targets regarding school provision for pupils with special educational needs, elaborated as a five-year plan in the case of Jamaica.

— In Kenya, policy was concerned with defining the skills and attitudes required by the target population, early intervention, awareness of the needs of those with disabilities, provision of specialized facilities and measures for preventing impairment.

— In Zimbabwe, policy guidelines covered early detection and intervention, integration, development of local training facilities, procurement of equipment, development of resource centers, provision of support and monitoring services, and assistance for non-governmental organizations.

Issues in SpED

— inefficacy and inhumanity of relegating all persons with disabilities to institutions

— singular focus on the importance of place while ignoring other inappropriate practices

— use of diagnostic labels is potentially stigmatizing to students

— minority students are overrepresented in some disability categories

— implementation of ineffective educational interventions

— Perhaps the largest, most pervasive issue in special education is its relationship to general education

LEGAL THEORIES: Legal Definitions

— SEN: In England and Wales the initialism SEN is most commonly used when discussing special education needs. The term is used to denote the condition of having special educational needs, the services which provide the support and the programmes and staff which implement the education.[2] In Scotland the term Special Educational Needs (SEN), and its variants are not official terminology although the very recent implementation of the Additional Support for Learning Act means that both SEN and ASN (Additional Support Needs) are used interchangeably in current common practice.

— Disability: is lack of ability relative to a personal or group standard or spectrum. Disability may involve physical impairment, sensory impairment, cognitive or intellectual impairment, mental disorder (also known as psychiatric disability), or various types of chronic disease. A disability may occur during a person's lifetime or may be present from birth.

— Disability Resource: Disability Related Products/Services from Companies Assistive Devices/Products for Independent Living

— Exercise Devices/Equipment

— Medical Supplies

— Other Products/Services

— Adapted Special Needs Clothing Computer Accessibility Products Augmentative Communication Devices Home Automation/Environmental Control Video Game Controllers

— Free/Discounted Prescription Medication Wheelchair/Mobility Products Vans/Transportation/Lifts Disability File Sources

— Handicap VS Impairment: The words “impairment,” “disability,” and “handicap,” are often used interchangeably. They have very different meanings, however. The differences in meaning are important for understanding the effects of neurological injury on development.

— The most commonly cited definitions are those provided by the World Health Organization (1980) in The International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps:

— Impairment: any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function.

— Impairment is the “varied condition of body structure, appearance, and organ or system function”.

— Disability: any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being.

— Disability refers to the consequences of impairment for the individual - the difference in (for example) “sight, hearing, intellectual functioning, mobility, speech and/or mental health”.

— Handicap: a disadvantage for a given individual that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal.

— Handicap refers to “the social disadvantages experienced as a result of impairments and disabilities. ... A handicap is not an attribute of a person, but rather, a restriction or loss of ability to participate in community life on an equal level with others due to physical and social barriers in the community. It represents the social consequences that arise from having a disability in an environment which does not cater for disability.”

— As traditionally used, impairment refers to a problem with a structure or organ of the body; disability is a functional limitation with regard to a particular activity; and handicap refers to a disadvantage in filling a role in life relative to a peer group.

— Religious, social and economic influences and attitudes tend to become mixed up in complex arguments about the ‘good’ of the individual and the community. You may have identified some of the following elements.

— Learning Difficulty to Difficulty in Learning: According to government regulations, students with learning disabilities have “disorders in one or more basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or do mathematical calculations.”

However, it is often difficult, based on observed behaviors, to distinguish between slow learners and learning disabled persons. Basically, a student with LD has deficits in one or two areas while performing at or above the average in other areas. The child's potential or overall intelligence is greater than his/her poor achievement would predict. This is called the ability-achievement discrepancy. It is even possible for someone to have characteristics of both conditions.

— Pupil Progress and Development: Progress monitoring is a scientifically based practice that is used to assess students academic performance and evaluate the effectiveness of instruction. Progress monitoring can be implemented with individual students or an entire class.

— Inclusive Education: Inclusive education is a developmental approach to the learning needs of all children, youth and adults, especially those who are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion.

The principle of inclusive education was adopted at the World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality (Salamanca, Spain, 1994), restated at the World Education Forum (Dakar, Senegal, 2000) and supported by the UN Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities.

— Mainstreaming: in the context of education is a term that refers to the practice of educating students with special needs in regular classes during specific time periods based on their skills. This means special education is delivered outside the regular classroom, where the student with the special need leaves the regular classroom to attend smaller, and more intensive instructional sessions. Schools that practice mainstreaming believe that special needs students "belong" to the special education environment.

— Rehabilitation: is an integrated approach to physical, social, cultural, spiritual, educational and vocational measures that create conditions for the individual to attain the highest possible level of functional ability

— Sheltered Workshop: refers to the provision of productive work for disabled persons through workshops providing special facilities, income-producing projects or homework schemes with a view to giving them the opportunity to earn a living thus enabling them to acquire a working capacity required in open industry

Posted byDoc Junhel at 6:27 AM  

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